satire
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- BBC News – A Point of View: Why does satire matter?
- Free Speech Center at Middle Tennessee State University – Humor Through Satire and Parody
- Oregon State University – College of Liberal Arts – Understanding Satire: Meaning and Illustrations
- Literary Devices – Satire
- The Victorian Web – Humor and Irony
- Scholarly Circles – A Witty Critique
- The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction – Satire explores the intersection of speculative fiction and humorous critique, blending futuristic themes with sharp wit. It delves into how satire within the genre reflects societal issues, offering both entertainment and thought-provoking commentary. The work highlights notable authors and stories that use science fiction as a vehicle for satire, examining their impact on literature and culture. By analyzing these narratives, it reveals the enduring power of satire to challenge norms and inspire change through imaginative storytelling.
- satire – Student Encyclopedia (For Ages 11 and Above)
satireSatire is an artistic expression, primarily literary and dramatic, that exposes human or personal flaws, foolishness, misdeeds, or failings through mockery, scorn, exaggeration, sarcasm, imitation, distortion, or similar techniques, often aiming to provoke societal improvement.
Satireis a term with many meanings. Along with its related forms, it stands as one of the most frequently used literary labels and also one of the least clearly defined. The renowned English dictionary compilerSamuel Johnson described satire as “a poetic form that condemns vice or foolishness,” yet more detailed explanations often fail to improve upon this simplicity. No rigid definition can fully capture the intricacy of a term that refers both to a literary genre—such as the works of the Roman poet Horace or the writings of the American novelist Nathanael West’s—A Modest FortuneSatire is a form of expression that embodies a mocking tone or attitude, often appearing across various literary styles while also permeating nearly every type of human interaction. WhereverWhen wit is used to highlight foolish or harmful behavior for critique, satire emerges—whether through music or preaching, art or political discourse, on TV or in films. In this way, satire is omnipresent.
In literature, satire may take a direct or indirect form. Direct satire involves the narrator addressing the audience openly, while indirect satire conveys the author’s message through the narrative and its events. While this article focuses mainly on satire as a literary device, it also notes its presence in various other aspects of human endeavors.
Satire’s essence lies in its ability to critique and mock societal flaws through humor, irony, or exaggeration. It serves as a mirror to human behavior, exposing absurdities and vices with wit and sharp commentary. By blending entertainment with pointed observation, satire challenges norms and provokes thought, often pushing boundaries to highlight hypocrisy or injustice. Its power stems from the balance between amusement and criticism, making it a timeless tool for social and political reflection.
Historical interpretations and conceptualizations
The challenge with terminology becomes evident through a phrase from theRoman orator and rhetoricianQuintilian states that “satire is entirely our own” (“satura tota nostra est”). He appears to assert satire as a distinctly Roman creation, despite being familiar with theGreek dramatist Aristophanes was acquainted with various Greek styles that could be considered satirical. However, the Greeks lacked a distinct term for satire, and bysatura(originally signifying a “mixture” or “assortment,” and giving rise to the English term)satireQuintilian aimed to define the type of poem “created” byGaius Lucilius, composed with a focus on suitable subjects, and marked by a style reminiscent of Lucilius and Horace.Saturabriefly alluded to athe poetic form, solidified and formalized through Roman tradition. (Quintilian also references an earlier variant of satire composed in prose by Marcus Terentius Varro, as well as by Menippus and his disciples Lucian and Petronius.) Following Quintilian’s era,saturastarted being employed figuratively to describe pieces that carried a satirical essence without adhering to the traditional structure. Once a noun steps into the realm of metaphor, as noted by a contemporary academic, it demands expansion, andsatura(which lacked verbal, adverbial, or adjectival forms) was quickly expanded through borrowing from the Greeksatyrosand its variations. The unusual outcome is that the Englishsatireoriginates from the Latinsatura, however,satirize, satiricMany terms, such as those ending in -ology, -phobia, and -ism, derive from Greek roots. This linguistic influence became prominent around the 4th century.cethe author of satirical works gained recognition assatyricusSt. Jerome, for instance, was described by one adversary as “a prose satirist” (“satyricus scriptor in prosa”). Later changes in spelling clouded the word’s Latin roots.satire: satura becomes satyra, and by the 16th century in England, it had been recorded in writing.satyre.
Elizabethan authors, eager to emulate Classical examples yet misguided by an incorrect etymology, were convinced thatsatyreoriginating from the Greeksatyr play: given that satyrs are famously crude and ill-behaved beings, it naturally followed that the termsatyreshould convey a sense of harshness, coarseness, or roughness. The English writerJoseph Hall stated:
The Satyre should resemble the Porcupine,
Sharp quills fly forth with every furious verse,
And scars the crimson cheek, the burning gaze,
Guilt weighs heavy on the one who listens and reads with a burdened conscience.
The mistaken origin linking satire to satyrs was definitively debunked in the 1600s by the Classical scholarIsaac Casaubon, a renowned classical scholar, is often mistakenly linked to the term “Casaubon” in George Eliot’s *Middlemarch*. However, the name actually traces back to an earlier figure, Isaac Casaubon’s father, Méric Casaubon. Despite this historical inaccuracy, the longstanding association carries a certain aesthetic charm, even if it lacks etymological precision, and this connection has endured over time.
In the introduction to his work, Hall asserts a point that has sparked bewilderment akin to the reaction prompted by Quintilian’s commentary on Roman satire. Hall declares:
My initial journey: join me if you dare,
And become the next great English satirist.
Hall was familiar with the satirical works of Geoffrey Chaucer and John Skelton, along with other earlier poets, and likely intended to convey that he pioneered the methodical emulation of Rome’s classical satirists.
Influence ofHorace and his companions ventured through the dense forest, their footsteps muffled by the thick undergrowth. The air was heavy with the scent of pine and damp earth, and the distant call of a lone bird echoed through the trees. Despite the challenges ahead, their determination remained unshaken, fueled by the promise of discovery and the bond they shared. Each step brought them closer to their goal, though the path was far from certain. Shadows lengthened as dusk approached, casting an eerie glow over the ancient woods. Yet, they pressed on, united by purpose and resolve.Juvenal
Through their craft, the renowned poets of RomeHorace andJuvenal permanently defined the characteristics of the formal verse satire, thereby exerting a widespread, though frequently indirect, impact on all later satirical works. He established rules for the form he created, though it should be noted that these rules were remarkably flexible. Take style, for instance. Across three of his…In his *Satires* (I, iv; I, x; II, i), Horace explores the suitable tone for a satirist who critiques the vices and foolishness of society from a moral standpoint. Unlike Lucilius’s abrasive style, Horace favors gentle ridicule and lighthearted wit as the most effective tools for his purpose. He clarifies that while he depicts instances of folly, he is not an accuser nor does he take pleasure in causing distress; his laughter at the absurdities around him stems not from spite but from amusement. Horace suggests that the satirist’s poetry should mirror this approach: it ought to be natural and unassuming, pointed when needed, yet adaptable enough to shift between seriousness and humor. Ultimately, Horace’s satirist embodies a sophisticated and worldly figure, troubled by the omnipresence of folly but responding with amusement rather than anger.
Juvenal, over a hundred years afterward, envisions the satirist’s purpose in another light. His defining stance is that of a moral man appalled by the depravity of his era, his spirit seething with indignation and despair. What drives him to compose satire? Because tragedy and epic no longer resonate with his generation. Wickedness and decay so pervade Roman society that, for an honorable individual, avoiding satire is nearly impossible. He surveys his surroundings, and fury parches his soul; never has wrongdoing flourished so brazenly. How could he possibly stay silent?In *Satires, I*, Juvenal’s rhetorical style—marked by exaggerated, lavish denunciations—stands in stark contrast to Horace’s stylistic guidelines. By the close of the sixth satire, a vehement and lengthy tirade targeting women, Juvenal proudly highlights his departure from tradition: he claims that within this work, satire has transcended the boundaries set by earlier writers, adopting the elevated voice of tragedy.
Juvenal’s groundbreaking approach has deeply perplexed the study of literary history. How can satire be defined when its two most celebrated practitioners produce works so vastly different that they seem nearly impossible to compare? This dilemma was articulated by the English poetJohn Dryden is widely recognized for his assertion that Roman satire can be divided into two distinct types.witty parody blended with sharp social critique andtragical satire, each possessing its own distinct validity. These classifications define the edges of the satiric range, whether applied to poetry, prose, or other forms of satiric expression. On the Horatian side, satire subtly blends into comedy, which shares an enduring fascination with human foolishness but lacks satire’s drive for reform. The line between the two is often blurred, yet it is distinguished by the fervor with which folly is confronted: fops, fools, and pedantics feature in both, but satire alone carries a moral aim. Moreover, while both comedy and satire are propelled by the same powerful force ofIn satire, irony takes on a militant quality, as noted by the 20th-century critic Northrop Frye.
Nicolas Boileau, Dryden, andIn the 17th and 18th centuries—the era of modern satire—writers masterfully capture the light, skillful tone of Horace when they choose. Yet satire’s brilliance can also be grave, intensely reflective, and visionary, delving into the Juvenalian extremes of the satiric spectrum, where it blends with tragedy, melodrama, and dark visions. Pope’sDunciadconcludes with these verses:
Behold! Thy fearsome dominion,Chaos! has been restored;
Thy uncreating word extinguishes the light.
Thy grasp, great Anarch! draws the curtain down;
All is consumed by Universal Darkness.
The identical shadow descends in Book IV of Jonathan Swift’sGulliver’s Voyages, regarding certain aspects of Mark Twain’s satirical works—The Enigmatic Outsiderand “To the Individual Seated in Shadows”—alongside George Orwell’s1984and, with a touch of surrealism, Joseph Heller’sCatch-22.
